THE CONSTITUTION OF HAN-ACADEMIC IDEOLOGY
TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ....................................................................................... xix Prologue........................................................................................................ xxi 1. Ethical Situation and Ethics .............................................................................. xxi 2. Chinese Ethical Situation and Chinese Ethical Thought............................................... xxi 3. Present-day Insight into Ethical Study................................................................... xxii 4. The Main Points of the Present Study of Ancient Chinese Ethical Thought and Culture.... xxiv 5. Outline of the Present Study....................................................................... xxvi 6. The Hermeneutico-Semiotic Approach............................................................ xxvii Introduction: Ethics and Academic Ideology .......................................................3 1. The Expanded Scope of Ethics ...................................................................... 4 2. The Historical Encounter between Ethics and Ideology ........................................... 4 3. The Ideological Aspect of Ethics ..................................................................... 5 4. Academic Ideology ..................................................................................... 5 5. The Archetype of Chinese Society and Culture ..................................................... 6 6. The Method and Objects of the Present Study ...................................................... 6 7. Ethical-Ideological Coordination and the Chinese Literati ......................................... 8 8. The General Signi?cance of Han-Confucianist Ideology. ........................................... 9 Part One: The Background and Conditions of Han-Confucianism .......... 11 (1) The Legendary Pre-Ch’in Historical World and the Systematized Historical World of the Han Dynasty ....................................................................... 11 1. Two Types of Chinese History ........................................................................... 11 2. The Heterogeneous Dialogical Situation: Intellectual and Historical Elements ...................................................................................................... 12 3. The Composition of Han-Confucianist Ideology ....................................................... 14 1. The Establishment of the Centralized Despotic System in Chinese History ............................................................................................... 16 1) The Original Feudal System of the Chou Dynasty: The Initial Period of Centralization of Political Power ............................................... 16 2) The Transformative Process of Totalizing Power ................................................. 19 2. The Basic Traits of the Ch’in-Han Despotic Systems ................................................. 22 1) The Basic Traits of Political Despotism Starting in the Ch’in-Han Period ..................... 23 2) The Archetype of Political Despotism .............................................................. 24 (3) Towards the Uni?ed Cultural World: The Identity of Pre-Ch’in Schools and the Formation of Han Texts ........................................................................... 26 1. The General Tendency of Chinese Thought from the Late Chou to the Ch’in-Han Period .................................................................................... 27 2. The Identity of the Masters and Sects in Pre-Ch’in Learnings and Schools ........................ 29 1) The Masters of the Pre-Ch’in Schools ............................................................. 30 2) The Content of the Teaching ....................................................................... 31 3) The Composition of Pre-Ch’in Schools ............................................................. 32 4) The Interpenetration of the Pre-Ch’in Schools .................................................... 35 3. Early Period of Bookmaking in China .................................................................... 36 4. The Semantic Composition of the Character “ju” Used in Han-Confucianism ............................................................................................ 37 (4) The Superstitious Traditions: Heaven-Man Communication ..................... 41 1. Heaven and the Superstitious Tradition ................................................................ 41 1). Heaven as Supernatural Will ........................................................................ 41 2). The Typology of Chinese Superstition ............................................................. 42 2. The Cosmological and Metaphysical Systems of the Late Chou-Han Period .................................................................................... 43 1) Yin-Yang Thought .................................................................................... 44 2) The Five Elements System.......................................................................... 44 3) The Pattern of Historical Circulation.............................................................. 45 4) The Development of Han Superstition..................................................................... 46 3. The Utilitarian Background of the Communication between Heaven and Earth ................................................................................................................. 48 1) Restricting the Rulers........................................................................................ 48 2) The Tool Used by the Rulers................................................................................. 48 3) The Tool Used by the Challengers........................................................................... 49 4) Belief, Self-deception and Deception in the Doctrine of the Heaven-man Correspondence................................................................................... 50 5) The Relationship of Power to Superstition................................................................. 50 1. The Lineage of Blood-Ties or the Family........................................................................ 53 2. Political Genealogy: The Imperial Lineage....................................................................... 54 1) The Genealogical Ideology of the Imperial Lineage during the Pre-Ch’in Imperial Movement.................................................................................... 54 2) Rules for the Transition of Power............................................................................. 56 3. The Cultural and Spiritucal Tradition: The Lineage of Indoctrination ...................................................................................................................... 57 4. The Genealogical Logic: The Lineage of the Chinese Tao and the Dei?cation of the Temporal Hierarchy of Power ......................................................................................58 Part Two: The Formation of the Han-Confucianist System ..................................................... 60 (6) The Han-Academic Ideological System........................................................................... 60 1. The De?nition of Ideology in Our Analysis....................................................................... 60 2. Han-Academic Ideology and the Han-Rulers.................................................................... 62 3. The Operative Levels of Han-Academic Ideology.............................................................. 63 4. the Basic Operative Items of and Roles in the ju-Academic Ideological System................................................................................................. 63 5. Academico-Ideological Operations in the Four Levels.......................................................... 65 1) The Textual Level............................................................................................. 65 2) The Socio-political Level...................................................................................... 66 3) The Intellectual and Scholarly Level.......................................................................... 67 4) The Moral-behavioral Level.................................................................................... 67 (7) The Establishment of Han-Confucianism .................................................................... 68 1. The Strategy in Analyzing the Han-Confucianist Movement.................................................... 68 2. The Pre-Confucianist Period: Legalist-Taoist (Huang-Lao) Politics and Classical Learning............................................................................................. 70 3. The Beginning of Han-Confucianism: The Legalist Han Emperor Wu-ti and the ju-School Tung Chung-shu...................................................................... 70 1) The Originator of the Confucianist Movement: The Han Emperor Wu-ti.......................................................................................... 71 2) The Confucianist Thinker: Tung Chung-shu................................................................ 71 4. The Complete Establishment of Confucianist System in Former Han ........................................................................................................................... 74 5. The Utility of the Classical Texts in Political Ideology: The Usurpation of Wang Mang.................................................................................... 76 6. The Pragmatization of Han-Confucianism: The Establishment of Political Dogma in the Reign of Chang-ti.............................................................................. 78 7. The Establishment of Han-Confucianist Scholarship: The Transition from the Ideological to the Scholarly Role in the Late Later Han ........................................................................................................................... 79 (8) The Social Conditions of Confucianist Ideological Operations: Obedience to Power according to the Doctrine of Filial Piety ........................................................................ 81 1. The Ideological Utility of the Family System in the Han..................................................... 81 2. Traditional Elements Ideologically Employed.................................................................. 82 1) From the Biological to the Social.......................................................................... 82 2) From the Naturally Affectional to the Socially Deferential.............................................. 82 3) From Traditional Familial Succession to Absolute Domination......................................... 83 3. The Extension and Transformation of Filial Piety into Political Allegiance................................ 83 1) Absolute Obedience......................................................................................... 84 2) The Consciousness of Belonging to the Superior........................................................ 85 4. Belonging to the Objective Order of Domination............................................................. 86 1) The Funeral of the Father.................................................................................. 86 2) Sacri?ce to Ancestors....................................................................................... 86 5. hsiao as Ideological Training for Supporting Despotic Politics..................................................................................................... 87 (9) The Organization of the Classical Texts ..................... 89 1. The Identity of the Confucianist Classics..................................................................... 89 1) The Gradation of the Texts................................................................................ 89 2) The Number of the Basic ClassicTexts.................................................................... 90 2. The Source and Origin of the Classic Texts................................................................... 92 1) The Lineage of the Teaching of Individual Texts........................................................ 93 2) The Lineage of the Teaching of All Classic Texts........................................................ 93 3) The Special Position of the Confucian Texts............................................................. 94 3. The Establishment of the Institutional Hierarchy of Learning and Teaching.............................................................................................................. 95 1) The Of?cial Academicians of the Classic Texts........................................................... 95 2) The Of?cial Academia of Classic Texts.................................................................... 96 4. The Fabrication of Ancient Books............................................................................... 97 Part Three: The Composition of the Confucianist Classics ................................................ 102 (10) The Spring-Autumn Annals (Ch’un-ch’iu) and its Three Commentaries....................................................................................................... 102 1. The Legendary Author of the Original Text of the Classic................................................... 103 2. The Composition of the Original Text.......................................................................... 105 3. The Meaning of the Basic Text.................................................................................. 106 4. The Moral Exegetic Kung-yang Version......................................................................... 107 5. The Tso-chuan Version and the Ku-liang Version of the Annals............................................. 108 6. The Confucianist Hermeneutic Technique of Historical Writing............................................ 112 1) The Systematic Use of the Titles of the Five Ranks..................................................... 112 2) Omission and Gaps in the Discursive Nexus.............................................................. 112 3) Honest Decriptions of the Breach of Ritual Rules........................................................ 114 4) The Gradation of Evil Conduct.............................................................................. 114 5) Signs of Natural Disasters................................................................................... 114 7. Exegetic Methods.................................................................................................. 116 8. The Style of Original Historiographic Writing: The Ideological Function of Spatial Description vs. Temporal Narrative......................................................... 119 (11) The Book of Changes (I Ching)............................................................................... 122 1. The Composition of the Changes................................................................................ 123 2. The Structure of the Changes.................................................................................... 124 1) The Typology of the Yin-Yang Line-Diagrams.............................................................. 125 2) The 450 Basic Situations and Related Verbal Explanations............................................... 126 3) The First Commentaries: T’uan and Hsiang............................................................... 128 4) The Second Commentaries: Wen-yan and Hsi-tz’u........................................................ 129 3. The Functions of the Book of Changes.......................................................................... 131 1) The Combination of Confucianism and Taoism........................................................... 131 2) The Three-fold Transformations: Position, Force and Virtue............................................ 132 3) The Analysis of the Dynamic Relations of Forces......................................................... 132 4) The Transformation of Relations of Good-Evil into that of Pro?t-Inquiry...................................................................................................... 133 5) Prediction through the Analysis of the Changes.......................................................... 134 6) The Confucianist Focus on Practical Tactics.............................................................. 135 4. Why the Book of Changes is the Leading Classic of Confucianism.......................................... 136 1) The main Features of the Changes in the Han ........................................................... 136 2) The Symbolically Heuristic Mechanism for Grasping and Organizing the Structural Situations of Elements............................................................ 138 5. The Hermeneutic Mechanism.................................................................................... 140 1) The Basic Signifying Way of the Diagrammatic Unit..................................................... 141 2) The Function of Ideologico-Pragmatic Signi?cation....................................................... 142 3) The Source of the Authority of the Changes with Respect to its Interpretative Procedure........................................................................................ 144 (12) The Book of the Historical Documents (Shu) ............................................................ 147 1. The Historical Background of the Documents.................................................................. 147 1) Recorded History and the Historical Documents.......................................................... 147 2) The History of the Formation of the Documents.......................................................... 149 2. Historical Content and Historical Authenticity in the Documents............................................ 151 1) Historical Content............................................................................................. 151 2) Historical Authenticity........................................................................................ 151 3. The Truth of Recorded History................................................................................... 153 4. Types of Writing and the Complexity of Narrative Organization............................................. 155 1) Types of Writing.............................................................................................. 155 2) The Complexity of Narrative Organization................................................................. 158 5. The Ideological Role of the Three Main Falsi?ed Texts........................................................ 159 1) The Canon of Yao............................................................................................. 159 2) The Tribute of Yü............................................................................................. 160 3) The Great Plan................................................................................................ 161 6. Ideological Manipulation in the Documents..................................................................... 162 1) The Formation of the Documents........................................................................... 162 2) The Presumed Authorship of the Chou Prince and Confucius............................................ 163 3) The Special Introduction Fabricated for the Documents.................................................. 164 4) The Temporal Order of Historical Powers.................................................................. 164 5) The Historiographical Indication of the National Origin.................................................. 165 (13) The Three Books of the Rites (Li) .......................................................................... 166 1. li-Practices and Social Reality in the Former Han Period..................................................... 166 2. The I-Li: The Book of Etiquettes and Manners................................................................ 168 3. The Chou Li: The Ritual System of the Chou............................................................... ...170 1) The Content and Character of the Book................................................................... 170 2) The Historical Authenticity and Theoretical Form of the Book......................................... 171 3) The Symbolic Role of the Theoretical Framework........................................................ 175 4. The Li-Chi: The Records and Commentary of Rites.......................................................... 177 5. The Special Status of the Li-Chi................................................................................ 178 1) The-Ta Hsüeh (“Great Learning”)......................................................................... 179 2) The Chung Yung (“The Doctrine of the Mean”).......................................................... 181 3) The Li-Yün (“The Movement of Li”)....................................................................... 182 6. The Typology and Ideological Functions of li-Learning....................................................... 185 1) The Typology of li-Learning................................................................................. 186 2) li-Ideology..................................................................................................... 187 (14) The Book of Odes (Shih) .................................................................................... 188 1. The Composition of the Odes................................................................................... 188 1) Authors and Compilers...................................................................................... 188 2) Originality of the Poems and the Book of the Odes...................................................... 190 3) The Content and Form of the Odes........................................................................ 191 4) Examination of the Structural Organization.............................................................. 192 2. The Function of Pragmatic and Moral Criticism............................................................... 194 1) The Pragmatic Tradition of the Chou Poems............................................................. 194 2) The Ideological Process of the Historcal Use of the Odes............................................... 195 3. The Functional Mixture in Reading the Odes.................................................................. 198 1) The Aesthetic................................................................................................ 198 2) The Historical................................................................................................ 198 3) The Emotional, Volitional and Performative.............................................................. 198 4) The Morally Signi?cative.................................................................................... 199 4. Confucianist Poetic Exegesis.................................................................................... 199 1) Free Association in Interpretation through Allusive Poetics............................................ 200 2) The Fixation of the Emotional-Volitional Orientation through the Confucianist Reading...................................................................................... 203 Part Four: The Historiographic and Exegetic Patterns of Han Academia .............................. 204 (15) The Stereotype and Function of Exegetic Han Research.................................................. 204 1. The Symbolic Ideological Framework.......................................................................... 206 2. The Aim and Objective of Research........................................................................... 207 3. The Rigidity of the Scope of Objects of Research........................................................... 208 4. Methodological Patterns........................................................................................ 209 5. The Modelling of the Personality of the Confucianist Scholar.............................................. 211 1) Volitional Inspiration....................................................................................... 212 2) Training the Personality through Performing Academic Rituals...................................... 213 3) The Technical and Utilitarian Direction of Philosophical Research....................................................................................................... 214 4) The Composition of the Scholarly Personality.......................................................... 215 (16) The History of Han-Confucianist Scholarship ..................................................... 217 1. The Development of Confucianist Scholarship in Later Han............................................. 217 1) The Con?ict between the Old-Script and the Modern-Script Schools....................................................................................................... 217 2) Superstition and Scholarship in Later Han............................................................ 219 2. Exegetic Scholarship in Later Han.......................................................................... 220 3. The Wei-Chin and the Sung-Ch’i-Liang-Ch’en Period (the Six Dynasties, 220-581)................................................................................... 223 4. The Sui-T’ang Period (581-907)............................................................................. 225 5. The Sung Period (960-1279)................................................................................. 226 6. The Ch’ing Period (1644-1911)............................................................................. 228 (17) The Historiographic Patterns and the Contrast between Classical Texts and Practical Thought .................................................................................................................. 230 1. The Pre-Ch’in Division between Scholarship and Thought............................................... 230 2. Practical Thought and Classical Learning in the Han..................................................... 232 3. The Synthetic Type of Books of the Chou-Han Period.................................................... 233 1) The Synthetic Mode of Theoretical Writing in the Han.............................................. 234 2) Synthetic Political Discourse at the Han Court........................................................ 235 4. The Chronological Framework and Historical Narratives................................................. 236 1) The Origin of Chinese Historical Writing.............................................................. 236 2) The Pattern of Han Historical Writings................................................................ 237 3) Historical Writings and Historical Truth............................................................... 239 4) The Character of Chinese Historiographical Writings: The Tension and Balance between the Classical and Historical Texts...................................... 240 5. Historiographic Constructions and Patterns................................................................ 242 1) The Construction of Facts and Events in the Historical Narrative..................................................................................................... 243 2) The Fiction of Historical Origins....................................................................... 244 3) Morally Determined Historical Causality............................................................... 244 4) The Historiographic Con?rmation of the Lineage of Power.......................................... 245 6. The Interaction of Classical Scholarship and Chinese Thought........................................... 245 1) The Character of Traditional Scholarship............................................................. 245 2) Philological Scholarship without Thought.............................................................. 247 3) Practical Thought without Scienti?c Scholarship....................................................... 248 Part Five: The Cultural Consequences of Han-Confucianism ............................................. 253 (18) The Contrast between Confucian Ethics and Confucianist Morality.............................................................................................................. 253 1. The Pragmatic Use of the Nominal Confusion between the School as a Social Sect and the School as an Intellectual Inclination................................................ 253 2. The Contrast of and the Tension between Confucian Thought and the Confucianist System......................................................................................... 254 1) The Ambiguity of the Western Term “Confucianism” and the Chinese Term “ju”.......................................................................................... 255 2) The Constitutional Contrast of Confucian Thought and Confucianism................................................................................................ 256 3. The Axiological Contrast between Confucian Ethics and Confucianist Morality........................................................................................... 257 1) Value and Motive........................................................................................ 258 2) Theoretical Presuppositions............................................................................ 262 (19) The Constitution of Intellectual Elements in the Confucian-Confucianist Tension............. 265 1. The Original Intellectual Elements and Their Regrouping in the Confucian-Confucianist Tension............................................................................... 265 1) Inclinational Elements in the Confucian, Legalist and Taoist Schools........................................................................................................ 266 2) Combinations of Inclinational Elements............................................................... 269 3 The Typology of Chinese Literati............................................................................ 270 1) Political Orientation..................................................................................... 271 2) Non-Political or Cultural Orientation................................................................... 272 (20) Cultural Aestheticization and Ethical Internalization............................................. 275 1. The Legalist Manipulation of Confucianist Ideology...................................................... 275 2. The Synthetic Confucianist Type of Personality........................................................... 277 3. The Pragmatic Symbolism of the Figurative Sign........................................................ 280 1) Personality as the Convergence of Interactional Elements......................................... 281 2) The Image of Yan Hui as the Symbolic Means of Ethical Internalization.............................................................................................. 282 3) The Different Uses of the Image Yan Hui............................................................. 285 4. Intellectual Preparation of Ethical Internalization through the Taoist Approach ................................................................................................................... 286 5. The Aesthetic Internalization of Confucian Ethics in Sung-Ming Confucianist Philosophy ........................................................................................ 289 1) Ethical Internalization................................................................................... 289 2) Psychological Aestheticization as an Ethical Technique............................................. 292 3) The Signi?cance of the Confucian Ethical Dimension in Confucianist History........................................................................................ 295 Bibliography ................. |
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